Transhumanism: An Introduction for Orthodox Christians

History and origin, vision for the future, and toward an Orthodox response

Transhumanism​ ​is​ ​a​ ​movement​ ​founded​ ​on​ ​the​ ​belief​ ​that​ ​the​ ​human​ ​race​ ​is​ ​capable​ ​of evolving​ ​beyond​ ​the​ ​“current​ ​human​ ​form.”¹ ​The​ ​movement​ ​itself​ ​involves​ ​a​ ​spectrum​ ​of philosophical,​ ​scientific,​ ​democratic,​ ​and​ ​technological​ ​visions​ ​for​ ​the​ ​future​ ​of​ ​the​ ​human​ ​race.² The​ ​theme​ ​that​ ​threads​ ​these​ ​visions​ ​together​ ​is​ ​dedication​ ​to​ ​overcoming​ ​“biological restrictions”³ ​such​ ​as​ ​sickness,​ ​suffering,​ ​and​ ​death,​ ​through​ ​science​ ​and​ ​technology.​ ​What transhumanists​ ​want,​ ​according​ ​to​ ​Oxford​ ​professor​ ​of​ ​philosophy​ ​Nick​ ​Bostrom, ​is​ ​to “improv[e]​ ​the​ ​human​ ​condition​ ​through​ ​applied​ ​reason…[and]​ ​overcome​ ​fundamental​ ​human limitations.”⁴​ ​​ ​What​ ​method​ ​should​ ​be​ ​used​ ​to​ ​overcome​ ​these​ ​limitations​ ​is​ ​a​ ​matter​ ​of​ ​debate. While​ ​transhumanists​ ​often​ ​differ​ ​on​ ​the​ ​details,​ ​their​ ​foundation​ ​and​ ​goal​ ​always​ ​seems​ ​to​ ​be the​ ​same:​ ​unquestioned​ ​belief​ ​in​ ​an evolutionary anthropology⁵ ​(read: speciation) and​ ​its​ ​projection​ ​onto​ ​a​ ​possible​ ​future​ ​immortality. To​ ​put​ ​it​ ​another​ ​way,​ ​the​ ​long-term​ ​goal​ ​is​ ​technologically​ ​mediated8 ​immortality;​ ​the​ ​means​ ​is human-mediated​ ​evolution.⁶

Historical​ ​Foundations​ ​and​ ​Developments

The​ ​moniker​ ​“Transhumanism”​ ​first​ ​appeared​ ​in​ ​the​ ​1957​ ​book​ ​​New​ ​Bottles​ ​for​ ​New Wine​​ ​by​ ​Julian​ ​Huxley,​ ​Aldous​ ​Huxley’s​ ​older​ ​brother.⁷ ​But​ ​by​ ​that​ ​time​ ​the​ ​philosophy​ ​behind the​ ​term​ ​had​ ​already​ ​been​ ​evolving​ ​for​ ​nearly​ ​one​ ​hundred​ ​years.⁸ ​In​ ​1863,​ ​only​ ​four​ ​years​ ​after Darwin​ ​published​ ​​The​ ​Origin​ ​of​ ​Species​,​ ​novelist​ ​Samuel​ ​Butler​ ​(1835–1902)​ ​submitted​ ​an article​ ​to​ ​​The​ ​Press​​ ​predicting​ ​the​ ​future​ ​of​ ​​natural​ ​selection​.​ ​He​ ​suggested​ ​that​ ​machinery may​ ​very​ ​well​ ​be​ ​“​the​ ​solution​ ​of​ ​one​ ​of​ ​the​ ​greatest​ ​and​ ​most​ ​mysterious​ ​questions​ ​of​ ​the day…what​ ​sort​ ​of​ ​creature​ ​man’s​ ​next​ ​successor​ ​in​ ​the​ ​supremacy​ ​of​ ​the​ ​earth​ ​is​ ​likely​ ​to​ ​be.”⁹ But​ ​Butler​ ​painted​ ​a​ ​bleak​ ​picture​ ​for​ ​the​ ​future​ ​human-machine​ ​relationship.​ ​​Capitalizing​ ​on​ ​a general​ ​fear​ ​of​ ​machinery​ ​that​ ​surfaced​ ​in​ ​the​ ​public​ ​consciousness​ ​sometime​ ​during​ ​the Industrial​ ​Revolution,​ ​he​ ​called​ ​for​ ​the​ ​destruction​ ​of​ ​all​ ​machines​ ​before​ ​it​ ​was​ ​too​ ​late.¹⁰ ​Interestingly,​ ​most​ ​people​ ​that​ ​read the​ ​article​ ​thought​ ​he​ ​was​ ​joking​ ​since​ ​he​ ​was​ ​an​ ​accomplished​ ​satirist​.¹¹​ ​

While​ ​there​ ​were​ ​writers​ ​prior​ ​to​ ​Butler’s​ ​time​ ​that​ ​raised​ ​questions​ ​concerning​ ​the human-machine​ ​relationship,​ ​most​ ​notably​ ​Mary​ ​Shelley’s​ ​​Frankenstein​ ​​(1818),¹² ​Butler​ ​was​ ​the first​ ​to​ ​connect​ ​man’s​ ​effort​ ​in​ ​building​ ​machinery​ ​with​ ​evolution​ ​and​ ​​natural​ ​selection​, proclaiming​ ​that​ ​next​ ​phase​ ​of​ ​evolution​ ​involves​ ​man​ ​“creating​ ​[his]​ ​own​ ​successors.”¹³ ​He writes:

we​ ​are​ ​daily​ ​adding​ ​to​ ​the​ ​beauty​ ​and​ ​delicacy​ ​of​ ​their​ ​physical​ ​organisation;​ ​we​ ​are​ ​daily giving​ ​them​ ​greater​ ​power​ ​and​ ​supplying​ ​by​ ​all​ ​sorts​ ​of​ ​ingenious​ ​contrivances​ ​that​ ​self-regulating,​ ​self-acting power​ ​which​ ​will​ ​be​ ​to​ ​them​ ​what​ ​intellect​ ​has​ ​been​ ​to​ ​the​ ​human​ ​race…we​ ​take​ ​it​ ​that​ ​when​ ​the​ ​state​ ​of​ ​things​ ​shall have​ ​arrived​ ​which​ ​we​ ​have​ ​been​ ​above​ ​attempting​ ​to​ ​describe,​ ​man​ ​will​ ​have​ ​become​ ​to​ ​the​ ​machine​ ​what​ ​the horse​ ​and​ ​the​ ​dog​ ​are​ ​to​ ​man…the​ ​time​ ​will​ ​come​ ​when​ ​the​ ​machines​ ​will​ ​hold​ ​the​ ​real​ ​supremacy​ ​over​ ​the​ ​world and​ ​its​ ​inhabitants.¹⁴

Nearly​ ​ten​ ​years​ ​later,​ ​in​ ​1872,​ ​Butler​ ​published​ ​​Erewhon​​ ​– a​ ​novel about​ ​a​ ​country​ ​by​ ​the​ ​same​ ​name​ ​that​ ​underwent​ ​a​ ​​ ​“revolution​ ​which​ ​had​ ​ended​ ​in​ ​the​ ​destruction​ ​of​ ​so​ ​many​ ​of the​ ​mechanical​ ​inventions​ ​which​ ​were​ ​formerly​ ​in​ ​common​ ​use.”¹⁵​ ​​The​ ​narrator​ ​of​ ​the​ ​book​ ​(a​ ​man​ ​named​ ​Higgs)​ ​explains​ ​to​ ​the reader​ ​that​ ​a​ ​certain​ ​Mr.​ ​Thims​ ​gave​ ​him​ ​a​ ​copy​ ​of​ ​the​ ​document,​ ​called​ ​​The​ ​Book​ ​of​ ​Machines,​ ​​that​ ​had​ ​spurred​ ​on the​ ​anti-machine​ ​revolution​ ​five​ ​hundred​ ​years​ ​prior.​¹⁶ In reality​ ​​The​ ​Book​ ​of​ ​Machines​,​ ​which​ ​covers​ ​chapters​ ​twenty-three​ ​through​ ​twenty-five​ ​of​ ​the​ ​novel,​ ​was​ ​a​ ​series​ ​of articles​ ​published​ ​by​ ​Butler​ ​in​ ​​The​ ​Press​​ ​that​ ​he​ ​then​ ​incorporated​ ​into​ ​the​ ​storyline​ ​of​ ​​Erewhon​.​​ ​It​ ​begins​ ​by summarizing​ ​the​ ​evolutionary​ ​concept​ ​of​ ​creation​ ​and​ ​hominization ​followed​ ​by​ ​an​ ​inquiry​ ​into​ ​the​ ​future​ ​of machine​ ​consciousness.​ ​The​ ​writer​ ​then​ ​projects​ ​into​ ​the​ ​future​ ​the​ ​following​ ​conclusion:​ ​since​ ​there​ ​was nothing​ ​in​ ​the​ ​form​ ​of​ ​consciousness​ ​in​ ​the​ ​beginning​ ​and​ ​

in​ ​the​ ​course​ ​of​ ​time​ ​consciousness​ ​came.​ ​Is​ ​it​ ​not possible​ ​then​ ​that​ ​there​ ​may​ ​be​ ​even​ ​yet​ ​new​ ​channels​ ​dug​ ​out​ ​for​ ​consciousness,​ ​though​ ​we​ ​can​ ​detect​ ​no​ ​signs​ ​of them​ ​at​ ​present?…There​ ​is​ ​no​ ​security…against​ ​the​ ​ultimate​ ​development​ ​of​ ​mechanical​ ​consciousness.¹⁷

Butler​ ​seemed​ ​to​ ​be​ ​​envisioning​ ​​ ​a​ ​world​ ​of​ ​machine-intelligences​ ​distinct​ ​from​ ​the​ ​human race​ ​–​ ​a​ ​new,​ ​superior​ ​species​ ​of​ ​intelligent​ ​robots​ ​who​ ​one​ ​day​ ​discover​ ​they​ ​have​ ​no​ ​need​ ​of the​ ​human​ ​being​ ​(like​ ​the​ ​robots​ ​in​ ​the​ ​2004​ ​movie​ ​​I,​ ​Robot​ ​​or​ ​the​ ​2015​ ​movie​ ​​Ex​ ​Machina​).¹⁸ While​ ​this​ ​is​ ​distinct​ ​from​ ​the​ ​Transhuman​ ​emphasis​ ​on​ ​the​ ​convergence​ ​of​ ​technology​ ​and human​ ​biology,​ ​Butler​ ​seems​ ​to​ ​have​ ​accurately​ ​predicted​ ​the​ ​beginning​ ​stages​ ​of​ ​it​ ​in​ ​the​ ​rise​ ​of artificial​ ​intelligence​ ​(AI).​ ​Yet,​ ​Butler​ ​cannot​ ​be​ ​considered​ ​the​ ​catalyst​ ​for​ ​the​ ​modern Transhuman​ ​movement;​ ​​ ​that​ ​​is​ ​actually​ ​traceable​ ​to​ ​two​ ​Christian​ ​writers​ ​who cultivated​ ​the​ ​seeds​ ​of,​ ​and​ ​began​ ​espousing,​ ​their​ ​own​ ​evolutionary​ ​eschatology.¹⁹

The “Christian” Origins of Transhumanism

The​ ​first​ ​of​ ​these​ ​two​ ​was,​ ​believe​ ​it​ ​or​ ​not,​ ​a​ ​baptized​ ​Russian​ ​Orthodox​ ​Christian named​ ​Nikolai​ ​Fedorov​ ​(1829–1903).​ ​In​ ​the​ ​mid-to-late​ ​19th​ ​century,​ ​Fedorov​ ​began​ ​espousing a​ ​unique​ ​approach​ ​to​ ​Christian​ ​faith​ ​and​ ​salvation;​ ​his​ ​motivation​ ​for​ ​this​ ​new​ ​approach​ ​was​ ​his intense​ ​longing​ ​for​ ​universal​ ​salvation.²⁰ ​As​ ​a​ ​result​ ​of​ ​his​ ​extreme​ ​de-historization​ ​of Christianity,​ ​Fedorov​ ​believed​ ​that​ ​“​the​ ​apocalyptic​ ​prophecies​ ​about​ ​the​ ​end​ ​of​ ​the​ ​world​ ​are conditional…[that​ ​is​ ​to​ ​say,​ ​they​ ​are​ ​just]​ ​threats​ ​for​ ​man”²¹ – and​ ​that ​​“​universal salvation​ ​and​ ​resurrection​ ​depend​ ​not​ ​only​ ​upon​ ​God,​ ​but​ ​also​ ​upon​ ​man.”²² ​It​ ​is​ ​the responsibility​ ​of​ ​mankind​ ​to​ ​come​ ​together​ ​in​ ​“brotherly​ ​unification”​ ​around​ ​a​ ​“common​ ​task”​ ​in order​ ​to​ ​“avert​ ​the​ ​Terrible​ ​Last​ ​Judgement​ ​and​ ​perdition”​ ​and​ ​usher​ ​in​ ​“the​ ​universal Resurrection​ ​and​ ​eternal​ ​life.”²³ ​But​ ​Fedorov​ ​did​ ​not​ ​believe​ ​in​ ​a​ ​literal​ ​Second​ ​Coming​ ​of​ ​Christ followed​ ​by​ ​the​ ​general​ ​resurrection;​ ​for​ ​him,​ ​the​ ​“universal​ ​resurrection”​ ​was​ ​nothing​ ​other​ ​than man’s​ ​bi-fold​ ​victory​ ​over​ ​death​ ​through​ ​scientific​ ​means​ ​(a​ ​work​ ​of​ ​synergy​ ​with​ ​God),​ ​which would​ ​open​ ​the​ ​way​ ​to​ ​universal​ ​salvation.²⁴​ ​​Firstly,​ ​the​ ​living​ ​man​ ​would​ ​conquer​ ​death​ ​by​ ​​not dying;​ ​secondly,​ ​he​ ​would​ ​erase​ ​its​ ​bitterness​ ​by​ ​resuscitating​ ​all​ ​those​ ​who​ ​had​ ​died.²⁵ ​This constitutes​ ​the​ ​completion​ ​of​ ​the​ ​“common​ ​task,”​ ​the​ ​initiation​ ​of​ ​the​ ​Kingdom​ ​of​ ​God​ ​on​ ​earth.²⁶ ​The​ ​resulting​ ​movement​ ​is​ ​known​ ​today​ ​as​ ​Russian​ ​Cosmism.²⁷

Ilia Glazuov, Timeless Russia (1988).

Not​ ​long​ ​after​ ​Fedorov’s​ ​death​ ​in​ ​1903,​ ​a​ ​Jesuit​ ​Priest​ ​by​ ​the​ ​name​ ​of​ ​Pierre​ ​​Teilhard​ ​​De Chardin​ ​(1881–1955)​ ​began​ ​promoting​ ​his​ ​own​ ​de-historicized​ ​biblical​ ​interpretations​ ​and evolutionized​ ​Christianity.²⁸ ​But​ ​De​ ​Chardin’s​ ​evolutionary​ ​process​ ​differed​ ​from​ ​Darwin’s insofar​ ​as​ ​the​ ​former​ ​ascribed​ ​a​ ​kind​ ​of​ ​consciousness​ ​to​ ​evolution​ ​and​ ​called​ ​for​ ​man’s​ ​active participation​ ​in​ ​it. ​ ​For​ ​De​ ​Chardin,​ ​evolution​ ​is​ ​nothing​ ​other​ ​than​ ​Christ’s​ ​activity​ ​in​ ​the world.²⁹ ​The​ ​world​ ​is​ ​thus​ ​evolving​ ​toward​ ​“higher​ ​unities​ ​of​ ​consciousness”​ ​and​ ​the​ ​eventual convergence​ ​of​ ​every​ ​aspect​ ​of​ ​life​ ​into​ ​“one​ ​complex​ ​consciousness​ ​entity”​ ​called​ ​the​ ​​Omega Point.³⁰ ​Teilhard​ ​understood​ ​this​ ​entity​ ​as​ ​the​ ​Body​ ​of​ ​Christ.³¹​ ​The​ ​goal​ ​of​ ​evolution,​ ​then,​ ​and the​ ​​parousia​,​ ​the​ ​Second​ ​Coming​ ​of​ ​Christ,​ ​are​ ​the​ ​same​ ​thing.³² ​Taken​ ​alongside​ ​man’s responsibility​ ​as​ ​Christ’s​ ​co-worker​ ​in​ ​the​ ​evolutionary​ ​process,​ ​he​ ​is​ ​called​ ​to​ ​“transcend [himself]​ ​and​ ​co-operate​ ​in​ ​the​ ​consummation​ ​of​ ​Christ…[as]​ ​the​ ​faithful​ ​servant​ ​of​ ​evolution.”³³ The​ ​one​ ​who​ ​does​ ​this​ ​faithfully​ ​becomes​ ​a​ ​saint.³⁴ ​Soon​ ​after​ ​De​ ​Chardin’s​ ​death​ ​in​ ​1950,​ ​his friend,​ ​Julian​ ​Huxley,​ ​wrote​ ​about​ ​the​ ​importance​ ​of​ ​his​ ​ideas​ ​in​ ​a​ ​foreword​ ​to​ ​his​ ​posthumously published​ ​book,​ ​​The​ ​Phenomenon​ ​of​ ​Man​ ​​(1955):

[De​ ​Chardin]​ ​uses​ ​words​ ​like​ ​​noogensis​​ ​to​ ​mean​ ​the​ ​gradual​ ​evolution​ ​of mind​ ​or​ ​mental​ ​properties…similarly,​ ​he​ ​likes​ ​to​ ​use​ ​a​ ​pregnant​ ​term​ ​like hominisation​​ ​to​ ​denote​ ​the​ ​process​ ​by​ ​which​ ​the​ ​original​ ​proto-human stock​ ​became​ ​(and​ ​is​ ​still​ ​becoming)​ ​more​ ​truly​ ​human,​ ​the​ ​process​ ​by which​ ​potential​ ​man​ ​realized​ ​more​ ​and​ ​more​ ​of​ ​his​ ​possibilities.​ ​Indeed, he​ ​extends​ ​this​ ​evolutionary​ ​terminology​ ​by​ ​employing​ ​terms​ ​like ultra-hominisation​ ​​to​ ​denote​ ​the​ ​deducible​ ​future​ ​stage​ ​of​ ​the​ ​process​ ​in which​ ​man​ ​will​ ​have​ ​so​ ​far​ ​transcended​ ​himself​ ​as​ ​to​ ​demand​ ​some​ ​new appellation.³⁵

Only​ ​two​ ​years​ ​later​ ​Huxley​ ​coined​ ​the​ ​term​ ​“transhuman.”

Pierre​ ​​Teilhard​ ​​De Chardin​’s evolutionary system: humanization and ultra-hominization through the noosphere and toward the omega point (The Phenomenon of Man, 1955).

The​ ​ideas​ ​of​ ​De​ ​Chardin​ ​(and​ ​to​ ​a​ ​lesser​ ​extent,​ ​Fedorov)³⁶ ​took​ ​the​ ​public​ ​by​ ​storm. Scientists​ ​J.B.S​ ​Haldane​ ​(1892–1964)​ ​and​ ​J.D.​ ​Bernal​ ​(1901–1971)​ ​gave​ ​lectures​ ​during Teilhard’s​ ​own​ ​lifetime,​ ​in​ ​the​ ​1920s,​ ​in​ ​which​ ​they​ ​spoke​ ​of​ ​of​ ​man’s​ ​active​ ​involvement​ ​in evolution,³⁷ ​space​ ​colonization,³⁸ ​and​ ​the​ ​abolition​ ​of​ ​death​ ​through​ ​science.³⁹ ​Foreseeing​ ​the 1960s​ ​development​ ​of​ ​freezing​ ​recently​ ​deceased​ ​persons​ ​in​ ​the​ ​hope​ ​that​ ​future​ ​science​ ​would develop​ ​a​ ​“cure”​ ​(a​ ​field​ ​known​ ​today​ ​as​ ​cryonics),⁴⁰ ​Haldane​ ​commented​ ​that​ ​“​the​ ​abolition​ ​of disease​ ​will​ ​make​ ​death​ ​a​ ​physiological​ ​event​ ​like​ ​sleep.”⁴¹​ ​For​ ​his​ ​part,​ ​Bernal​ ​extrapolated​ ​on the​ ​future​ ​of​ ​man’s​ ​evolution,​ ​saying​ ​that​ ​“normal​ ​man​ ​is​ ​an​ ​evolutionary​ ​dead​ ​end;​ ​mechanical man,​ ​apparently​ ​a​ ​break​ ​in​ ​organic​ ​evolution,​ ​is​ ​actually​ ​more​ ​in​ ​the​ ​true​ ​tradition​ ​of​ ​a​ ​further evolution.”⁴² ​He​ ​goes​ ​further​ ​to​ ​say​ ​that,

sooner​ ​or​ ​later​ ​some​ ​eminent​ ​physiologist​ ​will​ ​have​ ​his​ ​neck broken​ ​in​ ​a​ ​super-civilized​ ​accident​ ​or​ ​find​ ​his​ ​body​ ​cells​ ​worn beyond​ ​capacity​ ​for​ ​repair.​ ​He​ ​will​ ​then​ ​be​ ​forced​ ​to​ ​decide whether​ ​to​ ​abandon​ ​his​ ​body​ ​or​ ​his​ ​life.​ ​After​ ​all​ ​it​ ​is​ ​the​ ​brain​ ​that counts,​ ​and​ ​to​ ​have​ ​a​ ​brain​ ​suffused​ ​by​ ​fresh​ ​and​ ​correctly prescribed​ ​blood​ ​is​ ​to​ ​be​ ​alive​ ​–​ ​to​ ​think.⁴³

Sound​ ​familiar?​ ​In the 1970s​ ​a TV​ ​show​ ​​entitled The​ ​Six​ ​Million​ ​Dollar​ ​Man​​ ​(1973–1978)​ focussed on a similar theme: a severely injured astronaut had his body rebuilt and replaced by machinery (presently being rebooted as a movie with Mark Wahlberg). ​And in the 1980s, Inspector​ ​Gadget​​ ​(1983) followed a similar theme (rebooted in 1999 as a movie with Matthew Broderick). But I digress.

Inspector Gadget (1999)

According to Bernal, this​ ​“[new​ ​man]​ ​would​ ​emerge​ ​as​ ​a​ ​completely​ ​effective,​ ​mentally-directed mechanism.”⁴⁴ ​Bernal​ ​spoke​ ​about​ ​the​ ​“new​ ​body”​ ​in​ ​a​ ​manner​ ​that​ ​sounds​ ​something​ ​like​ ​the body​ ​mechanisms​ ​of​ ​the​ ​brain-in-a-vat​ ​ultra​ ​villain,​ ​the​ ​Krang,​ ​from​ ​the​ ​1980s​ ​Teenage​ ​Mutant Ninja​ ​Turtles.⁴⁵ ​Today​ ​there​ ​are​ ​countless​ ​examples​ ​of​ ​the​ ​Transhuman​ ​vision​ ​in​ ​science​ ​fiction novels,⁴⁶ ​comic​ ​books,​ ​movies,​ ​and​ ​even​ ​children’s​ ​cartoons.​ ​Clearly,​ ​Darwin’s​ ​popularization​ ​of evolutionary​ ​philosophy​ ​sparked​ ​a​ ​cultural​ ​movement,​ ​first​ ​in​ ​the​ ​postulations​ ​of​ ​Butler​ ​which set​ ​aflame​ ​the​ ​imagination​ ​of​ ​science​ ​fiction​ ​writers,​ ​then​ ​in​ ​the​ ​philosophy​ ​of​ ​Fedorov​ ​and​ ​the evolutionary​ ​theology​ ​of​ ​De​ ​Chardin;​ ​it​ ​would​ ​not​ ​be​ ​long​ ​until​ ​this​ ​spark​ ​ignited​ ​an​ ​entire cultural​ ​conflagration.⁴⁷

Bernal sphere (1975, Rick Guidice)

Bernal sphere (1975, Rick Guidice)

​​In​ ​an​ ​interview​ ​with G.R.​ ​Swenson​ ​in​ ​1963,​ ​Andy​ ​Warhol​ ​famously said:​ ​“The​ ​reason​ ​I​ ​am​ ​painting​ ​this​ ​way​ ​is​ ​that​ ​I​ ​want​ ​to​ ​be​ ​a​ ​machine.”​​

The Transhumanist Vision: The Framework of Ray Kurzweil

Having​ ​shown​ ​the​ ​historical​ ​context​ ​for​ ​Transhumanism,​​ ​I​ ​am​ ​now going​ ​to​ ​detail​​ ​the​ ​specific​ ​vision​ ​of​ ​Ray​ ​Kurzweil ​in​ ​order​ ​to​ ​focus​ ​the​ ​discussion​. ​

There​ ​are​ ​a​ ​number​ ​of​ ​well-known​ ​modern​ ​Transhumanists,​ ​such​ ​as​ ​the​ ​2016​ ​third​ ​party presidential​ ​candidate​ ​Zoltan​ ​Istvan, and​Oxford​ ​University​ ​Professor​ ​Nick​ ​Bostrom. ​But​ ​perhaps​ ​none​ ​are as​ ​easily​ ​recognized​ ​by,​ ​or​ ​has​ ​as​ ​long​ ​of​ ​a​ ​history​ ​in,​ ​the​ ​Transhuman​ ​movement​ ​as​ ​Google executive​ ​Ray​ ​Kurzweil​ ​(b.​ ​1948).​ ​As​ ​an​ ​inventor​ ​and​ ​computer​ ​scientist,​ ​Kurzweil​ ​has​ ​invented a​ ​number​ ​of​ ​revolutionary​ ​technologies​ ​that​ ​people​ ​use​ ​every​ ​single​ ​day.​ ​Among​ ​them​ ​are​ ​the flat-bed​ ​scanner,​ ​the​ ​text-to-speech​ ​reader,​ ​the​ ​music​ ​synthesizer,​ ​and​ ​iPhone’s​ ​digital​ ​assistant Siri​.⁴⁸ ​He​ ​was​ ​thrust​ ​into​ ​the​ ​center​ ​of​ ​the​ ​Transhuman​ ​conversation​ ​with​ ​the​ ​publication​ ​of​ ​his book​ ​​The​ ​Age​ ​of​ ​Spiritual​ ​Machines​​ ​in​ ​1990​ ​–​ ​and​ ​again​ ​with​ ​his​ ​2005​ ​book​ ​​The​ ​Singularity​ ​is Near​​ ​–​ ​in​ ​which​ ​he​ ​made​ ​a​ ​number​ ​of​ ​predictions​ ​about​ ​the​ ​rise​ ​of​ ​future​ ​technology.⁴⁹ ​Today, Kurzweil​ ​is​ ​famous​ ​for​ ​these​ ​predictions.⁵⁰

Initially,​ ​though,​ ​his​ ​predictions​ ​were​ ​received​ ​with​ ​widespread​ ​criticism.​ ​But​ ​as​ ​the years​ ​passed​ ​and​ ​a​ ​number​ ​of​ ​them​ ​came​ ​to​ ​fruition,​ ​people​ ​started​ ​listening.​ ​Some​ ​wonder​ ​how he​ ​has​ ​been​ ​so​ ​accurate,​ ​but​ ​really​ ​it’s​ ​quite​ ​simple.​ ​He​ ​looks​ ​at​ ​growth​ ​trends​ ​and​ ​uses mathematical​ ​formulae​ ​to​ ​predict​ ​the​ ​rate​ ​at​ ​which​ ​technology​ ​will​ ​develop​ ​and​ ​what​ ​kinds​ ​of technologies​ ​will​ ​be​ ​invented​ ​as​ ​a​ ​result.

In​ ​this​ ​way​, Kurzweil​ ​follows​ ​the​ ​example​ ​of​ ​Thomas​ ​Moore​ ​(Moore’s Law).

Kurzweil​ ​then​ ​sets​ ​specific​ ​dates​ ​for​ ​these developments​ ​based​ ​on​ ​what​ ​he​ ​sees​ ​in​ ​his​ ​mathematical​ ​extrapolations​ ​–​ ​and​ ​he​ ​begins theoretically​ ​“inventing”​ ​future​ ​technology​ ​​with​​ ​the​ ​future​ ​technology.⁵¹

So​ ​what​ ​has​ ​Kurzweil​ ​seen?​ ​In​ ​​The​ ​Singularity​ ​is​ ​Near​​ ​he​ ​sets​ ​out​ ​a​ ​“history​ ​of evolution”​ ​in​ ​Six​ ​Epochs.​ ​Epochs​ ​One​ ​through​ ​Four​ ​have​ ​already​ ​taken​ ​place.⁵² ​Epochs​ ​Five​ ​and Six​ ​represent​ ​stages​ ​that​ ​are​ ​in​ ​man’s​ ​not-too-distant​ ​evolutionary​ ​future.⁵³ ​The​ ​various​ ​stages​ ​of Epoch​ ​Five​ ​include​ ​the​ ​maintenance​ ​and​ ​regulation​ ​of​ ​the​ ​inner​ ​(psychological)​ ​and​ ​outer (physical)​ ​man​ ​through​ ​scientific​ ​and​ ​technological​ ​means,⁵⁴ ​the​ ​rise​ ​of​ ​artificial​ ​intelligence​ ​that exceeds​ ​human​ ​intelligence,​ ​and​ ​the​ ​convergence​ ​(through​ ​implantation​ ​and​ ​other​ ​means)​ ​of​ ​AI and​ ​the​ ​human​ ​mind.⁵⁵ ​This​ ​phenomenon​ ​will​ ​increase​ ​the​ ​rate​ ​of​ ​technological​ ​growth exponentially,​ ​resulting​ ​in​ ​Epoch​ ​Six:​ ​the​ ​creation​ ​of​ ​new,​ ​smart-environments​ ​to​ ​accommodate the​ ​new​ ​human-machine.​ ​This​ ​technology​ ​will​ ​eventually​ ​be​ ​sent​ ​out​ ​into​ ​the​ ​cosmos​ ​in​ ​order​ ​to regulate​ ​and​ ​sustain​ ​the​ ​entire​ ​universe.​ ​Taken​ ​together,​ ​these​ ​two​ ​epochs​ ​lead​ ​into​ ​what Kurzweil​ ​has​ ​come​ ​to​ ​call,​ ​“the​ ​Singularity.”⁵⁶

Six Epochs (Ray Kurzweil, The Singularity is Near, 2005)

The​ ​Singularity:​ ​The​ ​Beginning​ ​of​ ​a​ ​New​ ​Society

For​ ​Kurzweil,​ ​“the​ ​Singularity”​ ​is​ ​a​ ​time​ ​when​ ​“there​ ​won’t​ ​be​ ​a​ ​distinction​ ​between humans​ ​and​ ​technology…it's​ ​a​ ​future​ ​period​ ​during​ ​which​ ​the​ ​pace​ ​of​ ​technological​ ​change​ ​will be​ ​so​ ​rapid,​ ​its​ ​impact​ ​so​ ​deep,​ ​that​ ​human​ ​life​ ​will​ ​be​ ​irreversibly​ ​transformed.”⁵⁷​ ​In​ ​the​ ​words of​ ​technology​ ​reporter​ ​Tom​ ​Abate:​ ​“the​ ​Singularity​ ​is​ ​the​ ​point​ ​at​ ​which​ ​machine​ ​intelligence begins​ ​to​ ​amend​ ​itself,​ ​improve​ ​itself.”⁵⁸ ​This​ ​involves​ ​the​ ​engineering​ ​of​ ​an​ ​artificial intelligence​ ​superior​ ​to​ ​human​ ​intelligence​ ​that​ ​will,​ ​itself,​ ​begin​ ​to​ ​improve​ ​and​ ​direct​ ​the course​ ​of​ ​evolution.⁵⁹ ​The​ ​hope,​ ​of​ ​course,​ ​is​ ​that​ ​with​ ​the​ ​help​ ​of​ ​this​ ​​ ​artificial​ ​intelligence​ ​the human​ ​being​ ​will​ ​further​ ​his​ ​own​ ​evolutionary​ ​development.​ ​But​ ​the​ ​machine​ ​takeover​ ​that Butler​ ​foresaw​ ​over​ ​one​ ​hundred​ ​years​ ​ago​ ​is​ ​becoming​ ​a​ ​growing​ ​concern.​ ​Today,​ ​Elon​ ​Musk and​ ​the late Stephen​ ​Hawking​ ​shared​ ​this​ ​concern,​ ​variously​ ​calling​ ​advanced​ ​AI​ ​one​ ​of​ ​the​ ​biggest threats​ ​to​ ​humanity.⁶⁰ ​But​ ​neither​ ​Kurzweil,​ ​nor​ ​tech​ ​giants​ ​Bill​ ​Gates⁶¹ ​and​ ​Mark​ ​Zuckerberg who​ ​are​ ​also​ ​interested​ ​in​ ​AI​ ​technology,​ ​think​ ​that​ ​this​ ​fear​ ​can​ ​be​ ​substantiated.⁶² ​These​ ​two​ ​opposing​ ​opinions​ ​about​ ​the​ ​risks​ ​involved​ ​has been the subject of debate for several years.⁶³

Ben Goertzel, founder of SingularityNET, with Sophia the AI robot.

The​ ​real​ ​question,​ ​according​ ​to​ ​former chief​ ​scientist​ ​and​ ​AI​ ​engineer​ ​at​ ​Hanson​ ​Robotics​ ​Ben Goertzel⁶⁴ is​ ​whether​ ​they​ ​should​ ​be​ ​built​ ​in​ ​the​ ​first​ ​place.⁶⁵ According​ ​to​ ​Australian​ ​born researcher​ ​Hugo​ ​De​ ​Garis,​ ​varying​ ​opinions​ ​on​ ​this​ ​question​ ​may​ ​very​ ​well​ ​cause​ ​the​ ​greatest war​ ​in​ ​human​ ​history.​⁶⁶ ​So​ ​what​ ​is​ ​the​ ​solution?​ ​Interestingly​ ​enough,​ ​both​ ​Goertzel​ ​and​ ​De Garis​ ​think​ ​they​ ​should​ ​be​ ​built​ ​anyway,​ ​despite​ ​the​ ​risks​ ​–​ ​and​ ​both​ ​Kurzweil​ ​and​ ​Musk​ ​think that​ ​next​ ​step​ ​is​ ​merging​ ​AI​ ​and​ ​the​ ​human​ ​brain.71​ ​For​ ​Kurzweil,​ ​this​ ​is​ ​in​ ​line​ ​with​ ​Epoch​ ​Five, the​ ​convergence​ ​of​ ​artificial​ ​and​ ​natural​ ​intelligence;​ ​for​ ​Musk,​ ​who​ ​launched​ ​​Neuralink​ ​​in​ ​July 2016,​ ​convergence​ ​is​ ​the​ ​only​ ​way​ ​to​ ​avert​ ​an​ ​AI​ ​takeover.⁶⁷ ​Either​ ​way,​ ​the​ ​result​ ​will​ ​be​ ​man’s evolution​ ​into​ ​a​ ​kind​ ​of​ ​super-being:​ ​a​ ​being​ ​that​ ​has​ ​been​ ​variously​ ​called​ ​the​ ​human-machine, superman, ​or​ ​cosmic​ ​being​ ​(CoBe).⁶⁸​ ​According​ ​to​ ​Kurzweil’s​ ​analysis,​ ​this​ ​marks​ ​one​ ​of​ ​the next​ ​phases​ ​in​ ​human​ ​evolutionary​ ​development,⁶⁹ ​the​ ​actualization​ ​of​ ​which​ ​will​ ​mark​ ​man’s completion​ ​of​ ​his​ ​​working​ ​goal​​ ​to​ ​defeat​ ​death​ ​(both​ ​by​ ​means​ ​of​ ​​not​ ​dying​​ ​and​ ​in​ ​his​ ​ability​ ​to “bring​ ​back”​ ​persons​ ​who​ ​have​ ​previously​ ​died​ ​by​ ​means​ ​of​ ​​information​).⁷⁰ But it doesn't stop there.

Black Mirror (2013), Be Right Back (Season 2, Episode 1). In this episode, Martha’s boyfriend, Ash, is killed in a car accident. But Martha is told of a new service that gathers information of the diseased and allows you to “chat” with them via technology. In early 2021, Microsoft patented a technology to do just this.

As​ ​the​ ​Singularity​ ​progresses,​ ​Kurzweil​ ​envisions​ ​a​ ​united​ ​world​ ​through​ ​a​ ​sort​ ​of biologically​ ​embedded​ ​internet.⁷¹​ ​In​ ​the​ ​words​ ​of​ ​his​ ​friend,​ ​Greek​ ​scientist​ ​Peter​ ​Diamandis, “humans​ ​are​ ​going​ ​to​ ​start​ ​linking​ ​with​ ​each​ ​other​ ​and​ ​become​ ​this​ ​meta-intelligence​ ​…[and] will​ ​eventually​ ​become​ ​an​ ​interconnection​ ​of​ ​the​ ​entire​ ​human​ ​race​ ​…​ ​[and]​ ​become​ ​god-like”​ ​in the​ ​sense​ ​that​ ​they​ ​will​ ​be​ ​“omniscience…[by]​ ​plugging​ ​[their]​ ​brain​ ​into​ ​Google;​ ​omnipotent [by]​ ​being​ ​able​ ​to​ ​control​ ​something​ ​at​ ​the​ ​other​ ​side​ ​of​ ​the​ ​planet;​ ​[and]​ ​omnipresent​ ​[by]​ ​being able​ ​to​ ​know​ ​the​ ​thoughts​ ​of​ ​somebody​ ​in​ ​Japan​ ​or​ ​Hawaii.”⁷² ​By​ ​then,​ ​in​ ​a​ ​manner​ ​reminiscent of​ ​Bruce​ ​Willis’​ ​role​ ​in​ ​the​ ​2009​ ​film​ ​​Surrogates,​​ ​Kurzweil​ ​thinks​ ​that​ ​“[people]​ ​we​ ​will​ ​be spending​ ​most​ ​of​ ​[their]​ ​time​ ​in​ ​virtual​ ​reality.”⁷³ ​According​ ​to​ ​Kurzweil,​ ​the​ ​rise​ ​of​ ​the​ ​gaming industry​ ​and​ ​alternate​ ​reality​ ​simulations​ ​“fits​ ​in​ ​well”​ ​with​ ​the​ ​prospect​ ​of​ ​the​ ​convergence​ ​of reality​ ​and​ ​virtual​ ​reality.⁷⁴ ​After​ ​all,

people​ ​are​ ​[already]​ ​spending​ ​part​ ​of​ ​their​ ​time​ ​in​ ​virtual​ ​reality environments…ultimately​ ​this​ ​virtual​ ​reality​ ​will​ ​go​ ​inside​ ​the​ ​brain​ ​and then​ ​there​ ​really​ ​will​ ​be​ ​full​ ​immersion​ ​with​ ​all​ ​the​ ​senses.​ ​Virtual reality…will​ ​have​ ​all​ ​the​ ​features​ ​of​ ​real​ ​reality​ ​plus​ ​a​ ​lot​ ​more.⁷⁵

Ultimately,​ ​for​ ​Kurzweil,​ ​Transhumanism​ ​is​ ​about​ ​much​ ​more​ ​than​ ​defeating​ ​death​ ​–​ ​it​ ​is​ ​also about​ ​augmenting​ ​life.​ ​He​ ​believes​ ​that​ ​“over​ ​time…biological​ ​bodies​ ​will become​ ​obsolete.​ ​[People]​ ​will​ ​have​ ​many​ ​bodies.​ ​[People]​ ​will​ ​look​ ​back​ ​on​ ​the​ ​idea​ ​of​ ​having one​ ​body​ ​and​ ​being​ ​dependent​ ​on​ ​[just]​ ​one​ ​biological​ ​body​ ​and​ ​having​ ​no​ ​back​ ​up​ ​for​ ​[their] mind​ ​file​ ​as​ ​a​ ​very​ ​primitive​ ​time.”⁷⁶ ​By​ ​Kurzweil’s​ ​current​ ​prediction,​ ​​​ ​​the​ ​“Singularity”​ ​will begin​​ ​in​ ​the​ ​year​ ​2045.⁷⁷

The​ 2014​ ​movie​ ​​Transcendence, starring​ ​Johnny​ ​Depp,​​ ​is​ ​based​ ​on​ ​Kurzweil’s​ ​philosophy.​ ​In​ ​Transhuman​ ​literature,​ ​this​ ​“mind​ ​backup”​ ​or “mind​ ​uploading”​ ​is​ ​simply​ ​referred​ ​to​ ​by​ ​the​ ​name​ ​“upload/uploading.”

​While​ ​the​ ​concept​ ​of​ ​the​ ​Singularity​ ​is​ ​Kurzweil’s​ ​own​ ​eschatological​ ​vision,​ ​the timeline​ ​and​ ​details​ ​of​ ​which​ ​have​ ​been​ ​criticized​ ​by​ ​Transhumanists​ ​and​ ​scientists​ ​alike,​ ​it incarnates​ ​a​ ​number​ ​of​ ​important​ ​Transhumanist​ ​themes​ ​and​ ​values​ ​that​ ​have​ ​shaped​ ​the​ ​values of​ ​culture​ ​over​ ​the​ ​last​ ​century.​ ​The​ ​chief​ ​among​ ​these​ ​values​ ​is​ ​a​ ​person’s​ ​​right​​ ​to morphological​ ​freedom: ​a​ ​term​ ​that​ ​connotes​ ​complete​ ​ownership​ ​over​ ​one’s​ ​life​ ​and​ ​body, including​ ​the​ ​freedom​ ​to​ ​alter​ ​it​ ​in​ ​any​ ​way​ ​one​ ​sees​ ​fit.⁷⁸​ ​This​ ​same​ ​“right”​ ​can​ ​be​ ​seen​ ​in abortionist​ ​literature​ ​because,​ ​in​ ​their​ ​rhetoric,​ ​a​ ​woman​ ​has​ ​a​ ​“right”​ ​to​ ​destroy​ ​the​ ​child​ ​in​ ​her womb​ ​because​ ​she​ ​has​ ​a​ ​“right​ ​to​ ​her​ ​own​ ​body.”⁷⁹ ​Most​ ​recently​ ​this​ ​concept​ ​has​ ​come​ ​to​ ​the fore​ ​in​ ​the​ ​euthanasia​ ​and​ ​medically​ ​assisted​ ​suicide​ ​debates,​ ​alongside​ ​the​ ​popularization​ ​of sex​ ​reassignment​ ​surgeries.⁸⁰​ ​The​ ​fact​ ​that​ ​these​ ​four​ ​movements​ ​–​ ​abortion,​ ​medically assisted​ ​death,​ ​transgenderism,​ ​and​ ​Transhumanism​ ​–​ ​flourished​ ​and​ ​grew​ ​concurrently​ ​(though at​ ​differing​ ​rates)​ ​should​ ​not​ ​be​ ​considered​ ​a​ ​coincidence.​ ​It​ ​is​ ​only​ ​a​ ​matter​ ​of​ ​time​ ​before society​ ​at​ ​large​ ​realizes​ ​that​ ​the​ ​“right”​ ​granted​ ​to​ ​the​ ​the​ ​woman​ ​who​ ​wants​ ​an​ ​abortion​ ​and​ ​the man​ ​who​ ​wants​ ​to​ ​be​ ​a​ ​woman​ ​is​ ​the​ ​same​ ​“right”​ ​that​ ​is​ ​being​ ​fought​ ​for​ ​in​ ​the​ ​medically assisted​ ​suicide​ ​and​ ​Transhuman​ ​movements.⁸¹ ​When​ ​this​ ​realization​ ​happens,​ ​legislation​ ​will​ ​be backed​ ​into​ ​accepting​ ​morphological​ ​freedom​ ​in​ ​all​ ​its​ ​forms,​ ​including​ ​“sanitary​ ​suicide.”​ ​It’s​ ​a logical​ ​headlock;​ ​it​ ​is​ ​not​ ​a​ ​question​ ​of​ ​​if​​ ​this​ ​will​ ​happen,​ ​it​ ​is​ ​a​ ​question​ ​of​ ​when.⁸²

Where​ ​Are​ ​We​ ​Today?​ ​–​ ​Taking​ ​the​ ​Transhuman​ ​Vision​ ​Seriously

The​ ​exponential​ ​growth​ ​of​ ​technology​ ​over the last fifteen years​ ​is​ ​unprecedented. ​With​ ​the​ ​onset​ ​of artificial​ ​intelligence​ ​aiding​ ​this​ ​process​ ​(read: AI is now making​ ​new​ ​forms​ ​of​ ​AI)​ ​the​ ​exponential growth​ ​trend​ ​has​ ​taken​ ​on​ ​new​ ​meaning. ​Take Google’s​ ​AI​ ​branch,​ ​DeepMind,​​ as an example. In 2017, it​ ​demonstrated​ ​the​ ​possibility​ ​of​ ​AI​ ​creating​ ​other​ ​AI​ ​​ ​–​ ​something they​ ​call​ AutoML.​⁸³ ​​ Later the same year, Facebook​ ​shut​ ​down​ ​an​ ​AI​ ​project​ ​when​ ​it discovered​ ​that​ ​it​ ​was​ ​communicating​ ​to​ ​other​ ​AIs​ ​in​ ​a​ ​language​ ​of​ ​its​ ​own​ ​creation.⁸⁴​ ​Ben Goertzel,​ ​lead​ ​engineer​ ​of​ ​Hanson’s​ ​revolutionary​ ​robot,​ ​Sophia,​ ​admits​ ​that​ ​“there​ ​is​ ​no​ ​way​ ​we will​ ​maintain​ ​a​ ​mastery​ ​of​ ​the​ ​AI​ ​we​ ​will​ ​create…from​ ​our​ ​perspective​ ​it​ ​will​ ​appear​ ​like​ ​a​ ​god, just​ ​like​ ​we​ ​would​ ​appear​ ​like​ ​a​ ​god​ ​to​ ​a​ ​cockroach.”⁸⁵ ​But​ ​is​ ​it​ ​really​ ​possible​ ​that​ ​this​ ​sort​ ​of technology​ ​could​ ​be​ ​inserted​ ​into​ ​a​ ​human​ ​being?​ ​Is​ ​a​ ​“convergence,”​ ​as​ ​Kurzweil​ ​envisions​ ​it,​ ​a real​ ​possibility?​ ​Based​ ​on​ ​present​ ​medical​ ​technology​ ​and​ ​research,​ ​the​ ​answer​ ​is​ ​a​ ​resounding yes.

Consider,​ ​for​ ​instance,​ ​the​ ​revolutionary​ ​advances​ ​in​ ​medical​ ​science​ ​technology​ ​over​ ​the last​ ​one-hundred​ ​years.​ ​With​ ​the​ ​technological​ ​advents​ ​of​ ​the​ ​pacemaker (1950s),​ ​the​ ​artificial​ ​heart​ ​(late​ ​1980s​ ​early​ ​1990s), ​and​ ​​the​ ​Vagus​ ​Nerve​ ​Stimulator​ ​(VNS),⁸⁶ medical​ ​science​ ​and​ ​technology​ ​have​ ​linked​ ​arms​ ​in​ ​order​ ​to​ ​preserve,​ ​prolong,​ ​and​ ​stabilize human​ ​life. ​Work​ ​in​ ​nanomedicine​ ​has​ ​proven​ ​that​ ​it​ ​is​ ​possible​ ​to​ ​have​ ​routine “nanorobots​ ​traveling​ ​through​ ​the​ ​body,​ ​searching​ ​out​ ​and​ ​clearing​ ​up​ ​diseases.”⁸⁷ ​This technology​ ​is​ ​developing​ ​in​ ​the​ ​form​ ​of​ ​cancer​ ​fighting​ ​nanobots,​ ​more​ ​efficient​ ​robotic​ ​white blood-cells​ ​(called​ ​microbivores),​ ​and​ ​robotic​ ​chromosomes​ ​(called​ ​chromallocytes)​ ​–​ ​not​ ​to mention​ ​in​ ​other​ ​methods​ ​of​ ​gene​ ​editing.⁸⁸​ ​Some​ ​have​ ​already​ ​been​ ​experimenting​ ​with bio-tech​ ​implants​ ​such​ ​as​ ​the​ ​world’s​ ​first​ ​governmentally​ ​recognized​ ​cyborg,​ ​​Neil​ ​Harbisson, who​ ​had​ ​an​ ​antenna​ ​implanted​ ​in​ ​his​ ​skull;​ ​an​ ​antenna​ ​that​ ​is​ ​equipped​ ​with​ ​“internet​ ​connection [which]​ ​allows​ ​him​ ​to​ ​receive​ ​colours​ ​from​ ​space​ ​as​ ​well​ ​as​ ​images,​ ​videos,​ ​music​ ​or​ ​phone​ ​calls directly​ ​into​ ​his​ ​head​ ​via​ ​external​ ​devices​ ​such​ ​as​ ​mobile​ ​phones​ ​or​ ​satellites.”⁸⁹ ​​This​ ​is​ ​just​ ​the tip​ ​of​ ​the​ ​iceberg;​ ​we​ ​are​ ​now​ ​living​ ​in​ ​the​ ​dawn​ ​of​ ​the​ ​Transhuman​ ​vision.

Neil Harbisson

Part​ ​2:​ ​Towards​ ​an​ ​Orthodox​ ​Response

The​ ​rising​ ​popularity​ ​and​ ​influence​ ​of​ ​Transhumanism,​ ​especially​ ​as​ ​it​ ​relates​ ​to​ ​the “slippery​ ​slope”​ ​of​ ​life​ ​expansion​ ​in​ ​the​ ​medical​ ​field​ ​through​ ​technology,​ ​confronts​ ​Orthodox Christians​ ​with​ ​several​ ​urgent​ ​questions:

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